The Culture of the Ancient near East

Ancient civilizations within the areas that approximate to the contemporary east were known as the Ancient Near East (ANE). This early civilization's growth initially gave the impression that it was a uniform process in which different people advanced at roughly the same rate. The British Empire's geographical territories were referred to as the "old near east," which distinguished between the near and the Far East. It was thought that it began around the beginning of summer in the fourth millennium BC and lasted from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age. Being the first places in the world to practice things like intensive agriculture, the invention of the alphabet (writing system), centralized government, organized religions and welfares, social stratification, slavery, laws and empires, pottery, vehicular and mill wheel inventions, and it was the origin of modern mathematics and astronomy, these regions are regarded as the cradle of civilization.

The Near East's plentiful water supply, suitable environment for intensive agriculture, diverse culture, and wealth of inventions were considered indicators of a region's civilization. It became bigger throughout this time, and aggressive powers that had already overthrown numerous civilizations began to rule it. This essay traverses through the progression of the ancient near east culture and its similarities and differences.

Progression

The Sumerians Civilization

The Tigris and Euphrates River valleys served as the birthplace of Sumerian culture. This occurred about 5000 years ago. The summer people built cities like Ur, Eridu, Kish, Nipur, and many others throughout their era of civilizations in order to further their culture. They were innovators in fields like business, the writing system, literature, the arts, and architecture.

Mesopotamian civilization was started by Sumerians around 3500 BC, and various towns were ruled by kings (Westenholz, 2002). All political activity took place in the temple (ziggurat). The Sumerians' well-known cuneiform writing system, which comprised more than 350 signs, made a substantial contribution to the field of writing. Henry Rowlison made this discovery. Small tablets were used for the writing, which was read from right to left. After the reading of the Rock of Behistan, data concerning Sumerian civilization went widely. These tablets mostly provided information about the summer civilization. The alphabet played a significant role in Greece's literary and cultural revolutions. It was first spread by the Greeks to other westerners, where it continued to be the major form of communication. The tablets were stored in series in their libraries. This enhanced humanity's contribution to Sumerian culture.

Despite being polytheists, their religious belief was exceptional; they even had a temple erected for the worship of gods and goddesses. Being agriculturalists, they sacrificed agricultural goods to gods and goddesses in order to ask for rain and more grain in exchange. Through their ability to track the motion of the planet and stars, the priests offered the sacrifices and foretold the fate of the Sumerians. They became experts in astrology as a result of this. The priest also contributed significantly to the drafting of stories that are still used today by Christians, including those about creation, the deluge, the tower of Babel, the fall of mankind, and Hebrews.

The areas of art and architecture benefited greatly from Sumerian contributions. They left indelible imprints after building the cities, palaces, and ziggurats. Every building had attractive finishing touches like columns, arches, vaults, and domes. Evidence of the artistic prowess of Sumerian potters, stone cultures, and goldsmiths can be found in Ur in the form of testimony to exquisitely designed pots, carvings, pictures, metallic faunae, and ornaments.

They used a calendar that was divided into 12 lunar months, each of which had 30 days. When some kings changed the months to 13 months, it became flawed. Later, Hebrews and Arabs agreed with this. Water clocks were also utilized by them to keep time. A single hour was divided into 60 minutes and 60 seconds. The Sumerians made a novel discovery when they came up with the concept of examining water droplet traces on pots. At that point, they created counting techniques by managing counting using the number unit 60. Because they thought it was sacred to their god, the Sumerians were very fond of the number sixty (60).

The invention of the wheel hastened human history. It increased pottery production and improved trade and business along land routes. They kept up solid commercial ties with Asians and Indians, with the city of Ur serving as the hub for global commerce. They largely imported food grains, while exporting wool, silk clothing, and metallic items.

Summer civilization was the first example of Mesopotamian culture. Its distinctive qualities reflect the contribution it has made to other civilizations. The Akkadian invasion brought the civilization to an end around 2500 BC, but it had left its mark on a number of other world cultures.

The Assyrian Culture.

The ancient Mesopotamian culture was also founded by the Assyrian Empire in the first millennium BCE. In the second millennium, it rose to prominence and dramatically established a bureaucracy and military that covered most of the Middle East. It had a significant impact during this period, enabling civilization to advance and prosper. Assyrians made a lot of contributions to technology, including advances in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. The Sumerians passed on their astrological customs to the Assyrians.

They kept many cuneiform tablets that contained forecasts for moon eclipses and the gap between related occurrences. Later, they developed astronomy and gave it to the Greeks. The concept is the cornerstone of contemporary astronomy. They were the first to discover the special qualities of a circle, including 360 degrees and latitude and longitude. Patient records kept by Ashipus (the physician) are evidently recorded in an Assyrian medical text written in cuneiform on tablets (Pekkarinen & Toivari, 1993) proof that patients received proper medical care. Around 1853, Ashipus, who used to crush adaru-poplar seeds, reportedly discovered aspirin, a headache remedy.

Assyrian civilization also included art and literature. They were the first people to employ clay tablets and libraries as a form of communication. They had a lot of their own literature in their libraries since they were so interested in history. Access to materials like stones and iron became simpler as a result of their empire's rapid expansion. Iron tools consequently facilitated the widespread construction of palaces. Images of battles and other wartime events were depicted in great detail in relief carvings on stones. The postal service, masonry dam construction, and antidepressants are among further inventions that are still in use today.

Around 2500 BCE, following the end of the summer, Babylon emerged during the Akkadian era. Although it was a short-lived empire, under Hammurabi, Babylon briefly rose to prominence. The collapse of the empire was caused by Hammurabi's passing. Babylon, like other civilizations, continued to utilize Akkadian for official purposes even if it was no longer used for communication. The legacy of the Sumerians had a significant part in the culture of the Babylonians.

Nebuchadnezzar, who governed Babylon for many years, is credited with writing the longest and most accomplished chapter in human history. Throughout his reign, he documented notable historical events. Like as twice conquering Jerusalem, demolishing it, and erecting structures and walls there that Greek historians greatly appreciated.

The Babylonians are well known for their significant contributions to physics, mathematics, and astronomy. They established the foundations of trigonometry, developed mathematical models for monitoring Jupiter, and created timekeeping techniques that are still in use today. The Babylonians' writings are still used by modern astronomy to investigate the rotation of the earth.

The Babylonians used more mud bricks in construction because there was an abundance of clay and not enough stone. They featured walls that were exquisitely tiled and zinc-plated. Three-dimensional figures were extensively used (statues of Gudea). Due to the limited supply of stone resources, the few available pebbles were extremely valuable, which improved the precision of gem-cutting.

The diagnostic handbook of the Babylonians has become widely known, despite the fact that their ancient medicinal remedies are comparable to those of the Sumerians. The Babylonian Empire created the ideas of medicine at this time, including diagnosis, prognosis, prescription, and patient evaluations. Therapies, etiology, pragmatic diagnosis, logical and rational prescription, and the use of signs and symptoms in diagnosis were all included in the diagnostic handbook. When physical treatment is inadequate, doctors choose exorcism as a method of removing any curse. (Heeßel, 2004). The diagnostic guide also makes mention of the contemporary perspective on medicine, including the study of symptoms, causation, prospects for the patient's recovery, and future development.

A large portion of Babylonian literature was created by Sumerians, who also wrote the language, religion, and laws in the prehistoric summer dialect. Their writings included grammatical rules, justifications, analyses of classic literature, and vocabulary for pupils with a clearly labeled and organized curriculum. The epic of Gilgamesh is one example of modern literature that continues to draw on Babylonian literacy (Lambert, 1996).

Persian Civilization

Around the sixth century BC, a string of Iranian dynasties gave rise to the moniker Persian Empire. The biggest empire in history was the first one that Cyrus the Great created approximately 500 BC (Briant, 2002). For a considerable amount of time before to being captured by Alexander the Great's troops, the Persian Empire developed into a center of culture, technology, law and administration, religion, and the arts. Persia is thought to have given rise to the first human civilization. And one historian, Pope, asserts that Persian culture is responsible for the world's sophisticated industry (Tajar et al, 2004).

In the seventh century, the Persians underwent a radical conversion to Islam and adopted the Arabic script. Despite recurring waves of invasions and intruders, the empire produced arts in numerous genres such as rock carving, metal works, architecture literacy, carpets, and weaving. The world has absorbed their culture.

The majority of them can be seen in the graves of Achaemenid rulers at Naqshe Rustam. Persian art utilized carved rock reliefs and molded them into cliffs. The paintings depict triumphant wars and events involving horses. The metalwork of the ancient Persians is very well recognized. Gold and silver items have been uncovered among the ruins along the banks of the river Oxus in present-day Tajikistan. Coins, bracelets, and little golden chariots are among them. The British Museum currently has them on display. The nomadic tribes of Persia are where carpet weaving first appeared. The hand-woven rugs were highly prized by the Greeks for their distinctive patterns and lovely hues.

Commonalties among the Major Ancient near East Civilizations

The entire region of Israel experienced impacts from nearby civilizations like the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, and Sumerian during this time, which is usually referred to as the second half of the Old Testament. By invading, conquering, and exerting influence over institutions and cultures, people have altered the political and social structure of this area. These resemblances represented the ANE's cultural evolution in general. The diverse environments, natural forces, and times during which the empires arose had an impact on how stable, political, and religious they were.

Despite having different perspectives on social, political, and economic issues, the ANE civilization flourished in areas that bordered the Mediterranean Sea. However, there were also some parallels. It congregated in river valleys where strong river currents supported agriculture and trade routes and provided water and food.

The ancient Near East was made up of king-ruled, highly ordered towns like Ur and Nipur. The cities were independent and frequently feuded with their neighbors as a result of their diverse cultures and ethical systems. Over time, those empires' political systems changed as a result of the disarray. Sumerians were subjugated by the Akkidians, who were then subjugated by the Babylonians, who eventually subjugated the Assyrians as well. Around 539 BC, the emergence of the strong Parisian empire led to the conquest and unification of the area.

All of the empires in the region adopted concepts like culture and artifacts as a result of intensive trade and diplomacy. Both cultures were heavily involved in trading. They create commercially prosperous civilizations ruled by opulent nobility. There was a strong class structure that was unique and evident in each of the four empires. The leaders of the armed forces, government, and religion comprise the elite class. The lower class included farmers, slaves, and casual laborers.

Each of the four ancient civilizations practiced an own religion. Ancient spiritual ideas, which blurred the line between heavens and earth, had a significant impact on society. They believed that divine deeds had a significant impact on their everyday affairs. They used omens and divination to keep track of important life events. The deity of the two rivers was revered by the Mesopotamians, who looked to him for the continuity of their civilization and a bountiful crop.

Social stratification was prevalent throughout ancient civilization, just as it is in contemporary civilization. Social structures, particularly in economics, were founded on productive and unproductive social groups. When a country has an economic surplus or when a certain group of people receives more than they need, they may seek protection from other communities that feel they should receive an unjust share of the surplus. The establishment of the ruling class as a means of self-defense resulted in greater inequality between people in terms of their ability to meet their basic necessities (Harman, 2008). The Pentateuch attempted to restructure and facelift the commonalities in defense of characterization, Israel's economic strategy, and an unbroken homogenous people, but it did not define communism among the civilizations. This is despite the fact that many socio-political themes in Israel had good intentions of denouncing the ANE normality.

The ANE experienced widespread cultural change, including variations in their ceremonies and religion. Religious ideas frequently changed as a result of direct and indirect interactions with foreign deities, which typically happened in contexts including trade, alliance, and conquest. Cultural and religious change was prevalent among the ANE. Both gods and their related religious activities were assimilated into them. Adopting military advancements and technologies from other empires after winning battles was a typical instance of cultural change in the ANE.

Similar writing systems, which started as pictograms, clay tablets, and cuneiforms and were primarily used for record keeping, were established by both ancient Near Eastern empires. Schools for instructing young people evolved in both civilizations. Every person, including priests, royalty, merchants, and teachers, relied only on writing that was originally Sumerian in both Babylonian and Assyrian cuneiform scripts.   

Distinctions of the Major Ancient near East People Groups

The ANE initially consisted of independent city states that fought for control. Sargon the Great, the first Semitic dynasty's founder, brought the ANE together around 2370 BC (empire). Following the fall of the Akkadian Empire, several peoples seized control of the area, including the Amorites, Hittites, and Assyrians, until Cyrus the Great rose to power and founded the Persian Empire, which brought about political unification. Despite being from the same location, the ANE empires had many different traits in terms of their cultures, religions, clothing conventions, and levels of authority.

Burnt offerings, drinking rituals, pipe music, and altar use were all part of the Greek sacrificial practices, which regarded God as the Supreme Being. Unlike the ceremonies and devotion of the Persians and Assyrians, who were primarily dominated by animal sacrifices, Henotheism predominated their theistic beliefs, which they learned through Assyro-Babylonian literature. They believed it was improper to have a single deity without claiming to be the only deity (Lambert, 1996). The Babylonians, Hittites, and Hurrians were primarily responsible for the culture of both the Persians and the Assyrians. The Persian Empire was more accepting of foreign customs and pleasures, as well as dress regulations. The majority of them wore Egyptian breastplates, and their fashion sense was heavily influenced by the medians.

Assyrian empire became more militaristic, with military camps led by an autocratic king and populated by primitive nobles, whereas Babylonian kingdom advanced in trade and cultivation. Strong agricultural organization was born in the area due to the militaristic nature of the Assyrian empire and its favorable environment in comparison to other empires. The neo-Assyrian empire outperformed other nearby empires in agriculture and trade thanks to its distribution of labor forces, development of an extensive irrigation system, and controlled land settlement policy.

During the Neolithic period (the agricultural revolution), nomadic populations invaded both ANE regions. Egypt benefited greatly from these incursions thanks to the River Nile. On and off predicted floods gave agriculture a boost, allowing it to prosper in both agriculture and trade. Contrary to the advantages of the Nile River, devastating floods killed people, destroyed towns, and submerged communities in Mesopotamia. Natural obstacles kept the Egyptian civilization safe from invaders, whereas Mesopotamia's civilization frequently rose and fell and saw the emergence of new empires, making it a never-ending struggle due to its flat terrain. In addition to being an invading target, Mesopotamia served as a corridor for troops, which led to endless wars.

Religious awareness was greatly influenced by nature and the environment in the ANE culture. The Nile River served as a blessing, bringing peace and prosperity to the area. The gods of Egypt connected a good afterlife to a good religion. The god Osiris, sometimes known as Isis, was in charge of establishing laws and guarding the afterlife. In contrast, Mesopotamian religion was so gloomy and depressing. Their fervent pleas revealed that they had no symbiotic relationship with gods and goddesses. The gods and goddesses regularly sent people disasters and had a bad attitude toward them (Bricker, 2000). However, according to the Hebrews, their deity was harsh and merciless, and he made a number of covenants with them. He established kingdoms with just foundations and brought atonement through his chosen people. The Hebrew deity has consistently employed this.

Sumerians were an agriculturally based people that came from the banks of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Because of the region's seclusion and lack of interpersonal understanding, mythopoeic thought predominated (Wengrow, 1999). Their thinking was cyclic with subjective views (related everything to themselves) because of the frequent on-and-off flooding from the two rivers and the mythopoeic society. As a result, the concept of separatism did not develop, but the idea of self-dominance did, and this idea spread to other empires.

Conclusion

The Ancient Near East (ANE) was a conglomeration of various cultures, unlike earlier civilizations, and it witnessed the birth of the alphabet, art and architecture, religions, trade, power, and language that are still employed in modern society. With many similarities and differences, including urban settings, social stratification, agriculture, law and order, religion, and literacy, the ANE laid the groundwork for modern civilization. While Babylonians and Sumerians were mostly farmers and traders, Assyrians and Persians established military dynasties. The Sumerians are credited with establishing the ANE as the birthplace of civilization. Empires rose and fell in a cyclical fashion as a result of invasions, conquests, and cultural influences. In the ANE, the Persian Empire maintained a protracted state of peace.

 

References

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Harman, C. (2008). A people’s history of the world: from the Stone Age to the New Millennium.

Heeßel, N. P. (2004). Diagnosis, divination and disease: towards an understanding of the rationale behind the Babylonian Diagnostic Handbook. Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine. Horstmanshoff HFJ, Stol M, Tilburg C (Eds). Leiden: Brill, 97–116.

Lambert, W. G. (1996). Babylonian wisdom literature.

Pekkarinen, P., & Toivari, S. (1993). On the Origin and Early Development of Medical Libraries and Transfer of Medical Information: An Essay on Ancient Medical Texts. In Information Transfer: New Age—New Ways (pp. 369–372).

Tajar, M. S., Bakhtiari, A., & Fayyaz, H. (2004). Contribution of Persia to the World Civilization. University of the Philippines.

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Westenholz, A. (2002). The Sumerian city-state. A Comparative Study of Six City-State Cultures.